Product extension of procter and gamble

Product extension of procter and gamble The Procter Gamble Company (PG) is one of the worlds largest consumer goods companies. It markets more than 300 brands in the beauty, health, fabric, home, baby, family, and personal care product categories. The company operates in the Americas, Europe and Asia. It is headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio, and employs about 135,000 people. CORPORATE OBJECTIVES The objective of Procter Gamble is that They will provide branded products and services of superior quality and value that improve the lives of the worlds consumers, now and for generations to come. As a result, consumers will reward us with leadership sales, profit and value creation, allowing our people, our shareholders and the communities in which we live and work to prosper. (http://www.uk.pg.com/company/aboutPG/purposeValuesPrinciples.html) CORPORATE STRATEGY Procter Gamble (PG), one of the worlds largest consumer goods companies is also a pioneer in the use of mass media. The company has used newspaper advertisements, radio and soap operas to advertise its popular brands like Crest, Pampers, Pantene and Folgers. During 1990-2000, however,  its rate of growth took a plunge. When AG Lafley took over as CEO in 2000, he gave PG a complete makeover with the focus on innovation and advertising. Since 2000, PG has been increasingly embracing targeted, viral and on-line marketing. (http://www.uk.pg.com/company/aboutPG/purposeValuesPrinciples.html) PROPOSED PRODUCT olayLogo87_Jul06.jpg Evolution Olay is a worldwide leader in skin care and have been trusted by women for fifty years. Graham Wulff, an innovative and entrepreneurial South African chemist developed the original formula at the beginning of the 1950s. Olay has eight global product lines offering a multiple of product. Product such as; Olay professional pro-X, Olay Definity, Olay Regenerist, Olay Total effect, Olay complete, Olay hydrate cleanse, Olay clarity, Olay body lotion, Olay touch of sun and Olay body cleansing (http://www.docstoc.com/docs/14719894/Oil-Of-Olay-Products). Skin care is evolving faster than ever with independent clinical trial and new standards in natural and organic cosmetics. Olay evolution will be a combination of Olay total effects (7 seven powerful anti-ageing in one) and Olay Definity (fight wrinkles, brown spot and discolouration). Many consumers want products that offer more than one benefit. So this product is expected to moisturize, fight free radicals and give the skin a more youthful appearance. This product would offer the costumer an ideal combination of the world most powerful skin care solution. Anti-aging is the fastest-growing skin segment, standing at $567.6 million, now representing the biggest category in skin care, surpassing facial cleansers which stand at $559.2 million. (http://www.allbusiness.com/population-demographics/demographic-groups/5517853-1.html) product-landing-definity_v6.jpg product-landing-total-effects.jpg Women are very particular when dealing with their face. They need to be convinced the product will deliver all the promised benefits. Women are willing to try new things and spend more money to look better and younger. Skin care attracts customers from all income level as most women like to take care of their appearance. The increase number of women working equates women with more money to spend and skin care is one of the favourite avenues for their spending. Based on Procter Gamble F4Q10 (Qtr End 06/30/2010) Earnings Call Transcript, Female Skin Care grew volume double digits with positive share trends. In the U.S., Olay all-outlet value share of the Facial Moisturizer segment was up almost two points behind the continued strength of the Olay Pro-X line and the Olay Regenerist Roller ball Eye Treatment innovation. Olay also had strong results in developing markets, more than doubling shipments in India, Saudi Arabia and the Philippines. Organic sales increased 5%, driven by 8% organic volume growth. (http://seekingalpha.com/article/218380-procter-gamble-f4q10-qtr-end-06-30-2010-earnings-call-transcript) Rate of Global skin care market 2002 and 2007 Country 2002 ( £M) 2009 ( £M) US 6,752.2 8,059.2 FRANCE 2,391.1 4,368.0 GERMANY 1,975.1 3,239.3 ITALY 1,440.0 2,340.4 SPAIN 956.4 1,897.9 UK 1,612.7 2,937.6 Source: Euro monitor international Below are the analyses of the business environment to back up the proposal. ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT Every Business operates within an environment, these environments directly and indirectly affects the way those businesses function. Competition in the skin care industry tends to be more intense and there are many changes that can be regarded as threat and opportunity that it is important for managers to cope with. MACRO Political The political environment Relates to the pressures and opportunities brought by changes of the government and their views toward the skin care industry. Each government always have a mandate to regulate the use on non organic ingredients in most skin care product. Economic This Refers to economic factors and structures and such variables like the stock exchange, interest and inflation rates, the nations economic policies and performance, exchange rates, etc. Although PG is based in the US, it earns revenues, pay expenses, own assets and incur liabilities in countries using currencies other than the US dollar. As a result, increases or decreases in the value of the US dollar against other major currencies will affect the companys net operating revenues, operating income and the value of balance sheet items denominated in foreign currencies. Social Middle-aged women are very interested in skin care items that help them retain a more youthful appearance and complexion. Observing social factors helps organisations maintain their reputation among stakeholders. Technological Changes in technology can affect a company competitive position. Industries merge; new strategic groups emerge; currents products improve and the cost of production gets reduced by process innovation. Because the skin care industry is very competitive, the company necessitate taking advantage of the latest technology and revolutionary substances to create new product in order to maintain customers interest and loyalty. Environmental With global warming and carbon foot prints being big concerns, governments and scientists are encouraging companies and individuals to be more environmentally aware. PGs policy is to: Ensure its products, packaging and operations are safe for their employees, consumers and the environment. Reduce or prevent the environmental impact of products and packaging in their design, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal whenever possible. They support the sustainable use of resources and actively encourage reuse, recycling and composting. MICRO Buyer Power;  Consumer products companies face weak buyer power because customers are disjointed and have little influence on price or product. But considering the buyers of consumer products to be retailers rather than individuals, then these firms face very strong buyer power. One good example is the business relationship between wall-mart and PG (see swot analysis). Supplier Power; the company could face some amount of supplier power simply because of the costs incurred when switching suppliers. Notwithstanding, suppliers that do large amount of business with the company also are somewhat obliged to their customers; nonetheless, bargaining power for both the firms and their suppliers is probably limited. Threat of New Entrants;  Given the amount of capital investment needed to enter the skin care industry, the assumption is that threat of new entrants will be fairly low. Threat of Substitutes;  Within the skin care industry, brands thrive in helping to build a competitive advantage, but even the pricing power of brands can be scoured with substitutes. Threats to this product may arise from other anti-aging products such as; Avotone, Revitol, Ceramide C etc. Degree of Rivalry; Skin care industry is a very competitive market, taking advantage of the latest technology and revolutionary substances to create new product in order to maintain customers interest and loyalty will be very important. In doing so it will increase the companys competitive advantage over other top brands like Avon and Nivea Visage. INTERNAL The internal environment constitutes variables and forces within the control of the organisation. These variables are; conditions, entities,  events, and  factors  within an organization which  influence  its  activities  and  choices, its philosophy, particularly the  behaviour of the  employees. Other variables include; the  organisation mission statement,  leadership style, and its  culture. SWOT Analysis; this is a planning method use to evaluate the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and treat to a business. It involves specifying objectives of a business at the same time identifying the internal and external elements that will affect the business both positive and negative in the race to attain its stated objectives. Strengths Weaknesses Leading market position geared on a strong brand portfolio. Significant RD and market investment. Robust cash productivity Increase instances of product recall. Excessive dependant on Wal-mart. High product prices translated into sales volume decline and market share loss. Opportunities Threats Future growth plans- Increase concentration on its core attractive businesses and enhancing its customer base. Increase investment in manufacturing capacity in developing countries. Acquisitions to expand portfolio Counterfeit goods. Changing global retail scenario and rise of private labels. Commodity cost and currency exchange rate. Rising cost of energy prices Economic slowdown in US and Euro zone. (www.datamonitor.com) STRENGTHS Leading market position garnered on a strong brand portfolio With revenues of $79,029 million, PG is the worlds largest consumer products manufacturer, with its products reaching 4 billion people worldwide. PG is the 20th largest company in sales and the 9th largest company in profit among the Fortune 500 companies. The companys market capitalization in 2009 was roughly $150 billion, making it one of the 10 most valuable companies in the US. PG holds leading global market shares in a variety of categories, including baby care (33%), blades and razors (70%), feminine protection (37%), and fabric care (33%). The companys leadership position is built on its strong brand portfolio. Strong brand portfolio enables the company to achieve economies of scale in distribution and retain a strong bargaining position with retailers. Leading market position provides PG with significant competitive advantage as well as stabilizes the companys financial growth Significant RD and market investment. Being a consumer products company, PG relies heavily on innovation and continued marketing investments in order to establish a significant competitive advantage. As a result, the company has made significant investments in RD and marketing. Over the last decade, PG has invested more than $2 billion in consumer and market research (nearly twice that of its closest competitor, Unilever; and equal to the combined total of its other major competitors; Avon, Clorox Company, Colgate-Palmolive Company, Energizer Holdings, Henkel, Kimberly-Clark, LOreal, and Reckitt Benckiser). Virtually, all the organic sales growth delivered by PG in the past nine years has come from new brands and new or improved product innovation. PG also involves external innovation partners to boost its internal innovative capability, an approach it calls Connect and Develop. Currently, more than half of all product innovation coming from PG includes at least one major component from an external partner. PGs strong RD capabilities and a marketing-driven understanding of consumer needs are backed by significant marketing investments. The company invests more than $7 billion in advertising annually, consistently making PG one of the worlds largest advertisers. Strong focus on research and development allows PG to renew its product line at regular intervals, which boosts customer loyalty and revenue growth. Significant marketing investments to support its brands and a broad product portfolio help PG to remain at forefront in a competitive market. Robust cash productivity PGs cash productivity: the percentage of earnings converted into cash has averaged over 100% since 2001, consistently among the very best in the industry. This is primarily due to PGs strong focus on productivity, working-capital management and cost reduction. Furthermore, PG is equally rigorous about managing costs. The company has reduced overhead costs as a percentage of sales by more than 300 basis points since 2001. The cash productivity allows PG to maintain the companys excellent credit rating, to pay strong dividends, and to have the flexibility to invest in the business organically or through mergers and acquisitions. Therefore, robust cash productivity ensures that PG has the flexibility and the resources to invest in growth even in the most challenging environments. WEAKNESSES PG has been registering increasing instance of product recalls. One case in point is in November 2009, the company voluntarily recalled three lots of its Vicks Sinex nasal spray in the US, Germany and the UK. The recall was a precautionary step after finding the bacteria B. cepacia in a small amount of product made at its plant in Gross Gerau, Germany. In March 2010, PG voluntarily recalled its Pringles Restaurant Cravers Cheeseburger potato crisps and Pringles Family Faves Taco Night potato crisps in response to a recommendation from the Food Drug Administration (FDA) to the food industry to protect consumers from potential Salmonella exposure. Most recently in June 2010, PG voluntarily recalled a small percentage of 1-liter bottles of Scope Original Mint and Scope Peppermint mouthwash with malfunctioning child-resistant caps in the US and Canada. Recurrent product recalls could affect the brand image of the company, which would lead to low customer loyalty and brand equity. Excessive dependent on Wal-Mart PG is heavily dependent on Wal-Mart Stores (Wal-Mart) and its affiliates for generating major part of its revenue. Sales to Wal-Mart and its affiliates represented approximately 15% of its total revenue since 2006. High dependence upon a Wal-Mart reduces the bargaining power of the company. Also, Wal-Mart could use its bargaining power to impose unfavourable terms on the company. Any decrease in revenue from Wal-Mart could have a negative impact on the companys businesses. Hence, the loss of this customer will lead to a sharp decline in PGs revenues and also a loss of its market share. OPPRTUNITIES Future growth plans In order to grow in a highly competitive environment, PG is pursuing a clearly drafted strategy with focus on two areas: increasing concentration on its core attractive businesses and enhancing its customer base. The company is sharply focusing on its core attractive businesses (the beauty and health market segments and several household care categories) as these are fast-growing businesses. For instance, the global market for personal care products has annual sales of over $39.5 billion and is growing at a rate of around 5% annually. PG intends to increase its customer base by acquiring under served and unserved consumers. In line with this, the company is targeting developing markets; extending its distribution systems; and expanding its brand and product portfolio. Developing and emerging economies are expected to account for 90% of the worlds population by 2010, and this is expected to drive demand for fast moving consumer goods. Increased investment in manufacturing capacity in developing countries PG is planning the biggest increase in its manufacturing capacity in order to expand into categories and countries where it doesnt have a brand presence. The company is investing 4% of sales in capital spending, including funding for new manufacturing capacity to support future growth. Over the next five years, PG plans to add 20 new manufacturing facilities. Almost all of these facilities are in developing markets, and almost all will be multi-product category facilities. By focusing on developing markets, the company would reduce the cost of serving these markets while also being closer to regions with the greatest long term growth potential. Acquisitions to expand portfolio PG has made significant acquisitions in the recent past. For instance, in June 2009, the company acquired the Zirh skincare brand. Zirh is a leading super premium, male grooming brand available in high-end department stores, specialty outlets and online. Later in May 2010, PG entered into an agreement to acquire Natura Pet Products, a privately-held pet food business. Most recently, in July 2010, the company concluded its purchase of the Ambi Pur Brand from Sara Lee Corporation. Ambi Pur is a leading global air care brand with presence in 80 countries, and also has several toilet care products, with strong presence in Western Europe and Asia. These kinds of acquisitions will strengthen PGs presence across a range of categories and in turn augment its top line and bottom-line. THREATS Changing global retail scenario and rise of private labels PGs products are sold in a highly competitive global marketplace which is experiencing an increased trade concentration and the growing presence of large format retailers and discounters. With the growing trend toward retail trade consolidation, it is increasingly dependent on key retailers. Some of these retailers have a greater bargaining strength than PG. They may use this leverage to demand higher trade discounts, allowances or slotting fees, which could lead to reduced sales or profitability. Commodity cost and currency exchange rate instability places tremendous pressure on PGs business. Not to mention the unexpected and dramatic devaluations of currencies in developing or emerging markets reduce profits. Counterfeit goods Trade of counterfeits and pass-offs products is negatively affecting the growth of FMCG companies like PG. The top two brands within any category be it cosmetics, detergents, or soaps are effected the most by counterfeit. It is estimated that the loss due to counterfeit products convert into around  £6 billion ($8.5 billion). Furthermore, with the advent of digital channels there has been a surge in the sale of counterfeit products and online sales of these products increased by 9% in 2009. Besides revenue losses, counterfeits and pass-offs also affect the companys brand as they are unsafe. (Swot analysis Source: www.datamonitor.com ) The best strategies accomplish an organisation mission by exploiting an organisation opportunity and strength, while neutralizing its treat and avoiding its weakness. Ansoff matrix Ansoff matrix highlight four possible market strategy for the propose product. ansoff_matrix-124013-1.jpeg (http://www.brothersoft.com/ansoff-matrix-124013.html). Product development: as this is a new product in the range, much emphasis will be to offer the product to the existing customer base. Using the competitive advantages and brand image of previous products to lunch the propose product. With the companys focus on advertising, (worlds largest advertisers) it can use the advertising power to push the product to recognition. Sixty percent (60%) of the strategy will be on product development. Diversification: One of the opportunities available to the company is launching into new markets and developing economies. Forty percent (40%) of the strategy will be to launch the propose product in an entirely new market. Market Penetration: this occurs when the company sells its existing product in its existing market, perhaps through greater promotional efforts. As this is a new product this strategy might be considered in the future. Market Development: this occurs when the company tries to sell it existing products in new and emerging markets. This strategy as well might be for future considerations.

Against Mandatory School Uniforms in Public School Essay -- Education

Imagine that you pick your seven-year-old child up from school. He is crying and wearing a different outfit than the one he wore to school. This is naturally upsetting but not as upsetting as your next discovery. His shirt, one you have never seen before, has a large "L" written on the sleeve in permanent marker; his shorts, also not his, are too large, stained and faded. Upon questioning your child, you discover that, despite your best efforts at compliance, your child’s clothing has violated the school’s uniform policy. Neither you nor your husband was called to bring your child a "compliant" change of clothing; rather a loaner uniform was forced upon your child. He was made to change into these alien clothes (McBride "Student" 1-2). The debate over mandatory uniforms in the public school system is raging across the country and in our own backyards. Proponents claim uniforms improve many areas in the educational arena while opponents vigorously challenge these claims. Opponents also cite potential civil rights violations while uniform supporters counter that the potential benefits greatly outweigh any loss of freedoms. The issue of mandatory uniforms in the public schools gained the spotlight of national attention following President Clinton’s 1996 State of the Union address. During that speech the President stated, "If it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear uniforms" (Clinton 4). The President later visited Long Beach, California, where the first, district wide, mandatory school uniform policy in the country was enjoying seemingly remarkable success. He told those attending his speech that he had signed an order instructing the Secretary of Education to send to all school districts across the nation the newly generated Manual on School Uniforms ("Clinton" 1). The manual outlines specific steps for school districts wishing to implement uniform policies. It also gives examples of a few model policies from across the nation (United 1-7). The President went on to thank and praise Long Beach for their glowingly successful uniform policy ("Clinton" 3). Thus, the Long Beach Unified School District’s uniform policy became the national standard for school districts across the country. Despite the apparent success of some uniform policies, these ... ...il Liberties Union Freedom Network. 1 Mar. 1996. American Civil Liberties Union. 5 Apr. 2000 . "STAR 1998-1999 Score Level Comparisons of Total Scores for All Students: California Stanford Nine Scores." 30 Sept. 1999. California Dept. Of Edu. 15 Apr. 2000 . "STAR 1998-1999 Score Level Comparisons for All Students: Long Beach, California Stanford Nine Scores." 30 Sept. 1999. California Dept. Of Edu.Apr.2000 . "Student Prevails in North Carolina School Uniform Dispute." American Civil Liberties Union Freedom Network. 11 Jan. 2000. American Civil Liberties Union. 15 Apr. 2000 . Tillman, Tim. â€Å"Polk County School Uniform Compliance Data March 1999.† Polk County School Uniform Page. The Parental Action Committee of Polk County, FL. 19 Apr. 2000 . "Uniform Incidents." Polk County School Uniform Page. Aug. 1999. The Parental Action Committee of Polk County, Florida. 5 Apr. 2000 . United States. Department of Education. Manual on School Uniforms. 29 Feb. 1996. 6 Apr. 2000 . Van Der Laan, Dick. Telephone interview. Apr. 1996. Walters, Sabrina. "Dade Study: School Uniforms Haven’t Led to Better Conduct." Miami Herald 17 Sept. 1998: 1A. News Library. 8 Mar. 2000 . Against Mandatory School Uniforms in Public School Essay -- Education Imagine that you pick your seven-year-old child up from school. He is crying and wearing a different outfit than the one he wore to school. This is naturally upsetting but not as upsetting as your next discovery. His shirt, one you have never seen before, has a large "L" written on the sleeve in permanent marker; his shorts, also not his, are too large, stained and faded. Upon questioning your child, you discover that, despite your best efforts at compliance, your child’s clothing has violated the school’s uniform policy. Neither you nor your husband was called to bring your child a "compliant" change of clothing; rather a loaner uniform was forced upon your child. He was made to change into these alien clothes (McBride "Student" 1-2). The debate over mandatory uniforms in the public school system is raging across the country and in our own backyards. Proponents claim uniforms improve many areas in the educational arena while opponents vigorously challenge these claims. Opponents also cite potential civil rights violations while uniform supporters counter that the potential benefits greatly outweigh any loss of freedoms. The issue of mandatory uniforms in the public schools gained the spotlight of national attention following President Clinton’s 1996 State of the Union address. During that speech the President stated, "If it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear uniforms" (Clinton 4). The President later visited Long Beach, California, where the first, district wide, mandatory school uniform policy in the country was enjoying seemingly remarkable success. He told those attending his speech that he had signed an order instructing the Secretary of Education to send to all school districts across the nation the newly generated Manual on School Uniforms ("Clinton" 1). The manual outlines specific steps for school districts wishing to implement uniform policies. It also gives examples of a few model policies from across the nation (United 1-7). The President went on to thank and praise Long Beach for their glowingly successful uniform policy ("Clinton" 3). Thus, the Long Beach Unified School District’s uniform policy became the national standard for school districts across the country. Despite the apparent success of some uniform policies, these ... ...il Liberties Union Freedom Network. 1 Mar. 1996. American Civil Liberties Union. 5 Apr. 2000 . "STAR 1998-1999 Score Level Comparisons of Total Scores for All Students: California Stanford Nine Scores." 30 Sept. 1999. California Dept. Of Edu. 15 Apr. 2000 . "STAR 1998-1999 Score Level Comparisons for All Students: Long Beach, California Stanford Nine Scores." 30 Sept. 1999. California Dept. Of Edu.Apr.2000 . "Student Prevails in North Carolina School Uniform Dispute." American Civil Liberties Union Freedom Network. 11 Jan. 2000. American Civil Liberties Union. 15 Apr. 2000 . Tillman, Tim. â€Å"Polk County School Uniform Compliance Data March 1999.† Polk County School Uniform Page. The Parental Action Committee of Polk County, FL. 19 Apr. 2000 . "Uniform Incidents." Polk County School Uniform Page. Aug. 1999. The Parental Action Committee of Polk County, Florida. 5 Apr. 2000 . United States. Department of Education. Manual on School Uniforms. 29 Feb. 1996. 6 Apr. 2000 . Van Der Laan, Dick. Telephone interview. Apr. 1996. Walters, Sabrina. "Dade Study: School Uniforms Haven’t Led to Better Conduct." Miami Herald 17 Sept. 1998: 1A. News Library. 8 Mar. 2000 .

Lyrical Violence :: essays research papers

Lyrical Violence Music is a prominent force in adolescent lives; according to the American Medical Association, American adolescents spend a total of four and a half hours a day listening to music and watching music videos. Parents are increasingly weary of suggestive, violent, lyrical content in popular music. A University of California study recently showed that 48% of Americans, including the younger generation, say that violence in popular music should be regulated. In Paducah, the affect of violent lyrical content in popular music has been an ongoing debate since the Heath High School shooting. Another case of a school shooting has shook up a small town in Arkansas called Jonesboro. One of the teen murderers admitted to law enforcement officers that the rap music he listened to might have contributed to his state of mind before the murders, if not his overall decision to gun down his classmates. Mitchell Johnson, the student, said, â€Å"It puts you in a certain state of mind.† This is not only relevant to the music/violence debate but it is a crucial element in understanding what is going on with the modern youth. Clearly, it can not be stated that the sole contributing factor in the student’s decision to commit murder was rap music; but it was a contributing factor. I b elieve that there is a painful and direct correlation between violence in popular music and violence in youth. I do not believe that government regulation, or censorship, is going to fix this problem. For those who debate the adverse effect of violent music on a person’s mind-state, I offer this example. In the early days of jazz, African-Americans would listen to, and play, the music as a release from the racial climate in which they lived. The music, if only for a while, removed their problems. This being the case, how can we deny that music, even without lyrics, has an overwhelming impact on our mind-state. Popular music affects everyone. Some people find that they can’t get a song out of their head after hearing it on the way to work. Other individuals discover that they get sentimental if they hear a song which they danced to at their prom. At funerals, people are brought to tears at the first note of Amazing Grace. While there are almost always other reasons behind the emotion, it is the music that triggers that particular mind state.

To Censor Science or Not to Censor Science :: Analysis, Donohue

The Censoring of science may seem like it is restricting scientist’s ability to share their knowledge with one another, but censorship is protecting the United States citizens. In the article, â€Å"Censoring Science Won’t Make Us Any Safer† the author Donohue (2011) said, â€Å"Citizens are entitled to know when their milk, their water, their bridges their hospitals lack security precautions† (p. 398). The author believed that United States citizens have a right to know when they are in danger. To refute this argument, would be to say that, if the government does not have some sort of regulation set up to inhibit the sharing of biological secrets, our nations security will still be at risk. Donahue believed that censoring science has put the United States at the same risk as not censoring. Donahue (2011) stated â€Å"the effort to suppress scientific information reflects a dangerously outdated attitude† (p. 396). Donahue supported this claim by explaining several cases in science where sharing information from microbiological studies have helped science move forward. One such study was done by scientists in Australia. The study was finding a disease that would kill rodents. The scientists found a disease similar to smallpox that was called mousepox. With the research that they discovered and published the researchers from St. Louis University found a defense against such a disease. Donahue (2011) declared â€Å"This result would undoubtedly not have been achieved, or at least not as quickly, without the attention drawn by the ASM article† (p. 397). Most scientists want to be able to share their data. Scientists are autonomous by nature. Begelman (1968) refuted an argument made by I. L. Horowitz, who was a scientist that believed that the government was in â€Å"gross violations of the autonomous nature of science† (p.70). Begelman believed conversely, that there is a system of checks and balances in the government regulation system, and that this system is in place to protect citizens. The autonomous nature of science is not being dispelled just because there are a few government regulations on publishing scientific information. National security should always be considered when publishing information that could potentially be used against the United States. Scientists need to be aware of this potential threat and practice self-censorship. In the journal, â€Å"A Tale of Two Studies†, Segelid (2007) said â€Å"We recognize that on occasion an editor may conclude that the potential harm of publication outweighs the potential societal benefits.

Packaging and the Environment

Packaging and the Environment The growing of the packaging industry is one of the phenomena of the 20 first century. Most people would non oppugn the necessity of packaging in our civilization both domestically and globally. It is perfectly indispensable for the distribution of trade goods and peculiarly for the retail of nutrient and other perishable points. There has been an increasing consciousness and concern about packaging in that the theoretical account of â€Å"use one time and throw away† puts a big load on the environment. Plastic has been the focal point of the attending. Paper merchandises really rapidly go wet and contract and quickly biodegrade to go portion of the natural environment. Tin home base rusts quickly and glass bottles are broken. Plastics do none of these things. They retain their form, composing and visual aspect for a really long clip, and when it is considered that a one pint polythene bottle weighs less than one ten percent of the weight of a glass bottle, the ground for the hapless image of plastics boxing as a constituent of litter is evident. ( Scott, pg. 189 ) In the first topographic point, the cost of plastics has been increasing at a slower rate than that of paper, tin-plate and glass in recent old ages. Second, plastics have certain built-in proficient advantages over the traditional options. They are really much lighter than glass and metals. Unlike paper, they do non absorb H2O, and since wet opposition is indispensable in nutrient packaging both to incorporate the nutrient and to defy bacterial taint from outside the bundle they have an overpowering advantage over paper. This advantage, coupled with the escalating monetary value of wood mush for paper, has led to a steady replacing of paper. ( 190 ) The packaging industry is an recognized facet of modern society and reflects the manner in which personal goods and belongings are looked upon as progressively disposable. This sentiment is a common subject which runs through all facets of the environment. A civilization born and raised in metropolitan countries, is non linked to nature or the environment. Their nutrient comes in a can, bag, bottle, or plastic wrap. The waste goes into bins that are emptied on a hebdomadal footing. Out of sight out of head, and the one manner disposal theoretical account continues. Many communities are mandating recycling as a manner to coerce decreases in solid waste. As the recycling industry grows, boxing interior decorators will necessitate to take recycling concerns into history. Harmonizing to Dr. Susan Selke, a packaging professor at Michigan State University, planing reclaimable bundles will cut down the solid waste disposal burden â€Å" provided a recycling system is in topographic point and the bundles enter the system. † With the important growing in recycling across the United States, guaranting that bundles can be recycled expeditiously and economically is paramount. ( Stana pg.18 ) Industry is faced with doing bundles that fit modern American life styles bundles that offer convenience and easiness of usage for all people every bit good as protect the merchandises. Packagers are committed to equilibrating these economic and societal considerations with environmental issues to bring forth bundles that meet the usage and disposal demands of s ociety. ( pg.19 ) And therein lies the job. Boxing fills trash containers and landfills, enduring far longer than the merchandises it was made to incorporate. It consumes natural resources. And it can besides reassign chemicals into our nutrient, with unknown wellness consequence. ( Claudio, pg. A233 ) If environmental harm is inordinate from the waste of packaging, the best solution is to beef up environmental ordinances regulating the extraction and production of the natural stuffs needed to do the packaging. ( Dewees, pg. 458 ) There is besides what is called User-Pay policies. User-pay policies require families to pay for each bag or can of waste collected, typically one dollar per bag. Paying per unit provides inducements to minimise packaging purchased, to divide recyclables for aggregation, and to minimise waste volumes in general. User-pay policies have by and large been implemented in communities that already have a curbside reclaimable aggregation plan. Empirical surveies of the experience with such plans finds that waste aggregation is reduced by between 14 per centum and 47 per centum. ( pg. 462 ) The costs of curbside recycling plans vary well among legal powers and over clip. This suggests that policy should non oblige curbside recycling in all topographic points and at all times. Again, flexible policies that encourage recycling when its benefits are high and its costs are low would be efficient. ( pg. 467 ) Since packaging is on a planetary graduated table, it would be prudent to look at policy outside of the United States. The German Waste Disposal Law is non merely really luxuriant, but besides instead complicated. A huge sum of statute law has been enacted at national, regional and local degrees, and an huge volume of proficient regulations and ordinances have been introduced, all of which purpose to guarantee that waste disposal and the recycling of used objects are non damaging to the general public assistance. ( Weidemann, pg. 1135 ) Trade and industry are now called upon to â€Å" change by reversal the concatenation of idea † . Packaging should be re-usable, every bit lasting as possible and the stuffs used should be suited for recycling. The decisive instrument for the enforcement of this doctrine is the duty to take back packaging, which the Regulation imposes throughout trades and industries. Taking the Regulation as a theoretical account, the German Minister for the E nvironment plans to publish similar ordinances for farther merchandises. The undermentioned ordinances are in readying: Regulation for the Avoidance and Recycling of Waste from Printed Materials, Regulation for the Avoidance and Recycling of Waste from the Disposal of Vehicles ; Regulation to Guarantee the Introduction and Extension of Returnable Beverage Container Systems ; Regulation for the Avoidance, Reduction and Recycling of Waste from Used Electrical and Electronic Equipment, Regulation for the Disposal of Construction Materials ; Regulation for the Disposal of Boxing incorporating Residues of Noxious Filling Substances ; Regulation for the Disposal of Used Batteries. ( pg. 1137 ) The United States could afford to take a expression at such rigorous policies. There are besides biodegradable options to conventional plastics. Presently the costs of bioplastic polymers are still much higher than that of mainstream plastic opposite number nevertheless, the impacts of biodegradable bioplastics, when come ining the waste watercourse and handled by landfill, recycling, and incineration, enable a possible option for waste intervention through composting as a manner to retrieve the stuffs and to bring forth compost as a utile merchandise. ( Davies, pg. 2129 ) Unlike conventional petrochemical-based polymers, biodegradable and compostable bioplastic polymers can be composted. Making or naming a merchandise biodegradable has no built-in value if the merchandise, after usage by the client, does non stop up in a waste direction system that uses the biodegradability characteristic. ( pg. 2131 ) It is clear from research done that several biodegradable packaging stuffs can be processed in place composting systems and output compost stuffs suited for wor ks growing. This capableness will enable such stuffs to be disposed of in well-run place composting systems and consequence in waste recreation from municipal waste watercourse. ( pg. 2137 ) Bioplastic polymers have great possible to lend to material recovery, cut down the usage of landfills and usage of renewable resources. Widespread public consciousness of these stuffs and effectual substructure for rigorous control of enfranchisement, aggregation, separation and composting will be important to obtaining these benefits in full. ( pg. 2138 ) In sum-up, recycling is one scheme for end-of-life waste direction of plastic merchandises. It makes increasing sense economically every bit good as environmentally and recent tendencies demonstrate a significant addition in the rate of recovery and recycling of plastic wastes. These tendencies are likely to go on, but some important challenges still exist from both technological factors and from economic or societal behaviour issues associati ng to the aggregation of reclaimable wastes, and permutation for virgin stuff. Though developments at an international and national degree are driving a civilization alteration towards more sustainable direction of waste in concern, it is the enterprises being implemented at a local degree which are ensuing in the most direct impact. ( Hopewell, pg. 2124 ) It is the concern advantage to be gained from effectual waste direction which is possibly the strongest driving force of all. ( Cain, pg. 1430 ) With the coming of â€Å"green† consumerism, concern behaviour forms look set to alter, as over-packaged goods are boycotted and composting enjoys a resurgence. ( pg. 1435 ) Though developments at an international and national degree are driving a civilization alteration towards more sustainable direction of waste in concern, it is the enterprises being implemented at a local degree which are ensuing in the most direct impact. ( Hopewell, pg. 2124 ) Communities are progressively turning to local environmental establishments ( LEIs ) to turn to unmet environmental challenges. This impulse toward place-based solutions and the creative activity of LEIs is fueled by the desire to do environmental policy more antiphonal to local values and involvements and to travel off from â€Å" one-size-fits-all † environmental plans crafted by distant authorities bureaus. ( Konsiky, pg. 3 ) When it comes to packaging, local communities can instantly make up one's mind what is best for their localised environment. Normally this far exceeds the capacity of a authorities which has no cognition of the local environment or resources. In the 1960’s Sweden had tur ning environmental concern. At the clip different bureaus handled different facets of the environmental issue with really limited powers, since the power to make up one's mind on those affairs rested with the Cabinet or with the County Administration. Their resources were besides really limited. The Governmental Principal Proposal on the Environment of 1965 marked the beginning of a new, integrative stage in Swedish environmental policy. It was the beginning of an incorporate policy. What followed is considered the nidation stage. In 1967, an incorporate administrative organic structure was established. It covered the Fieldss of nature conservancy, H2O and air protection, out-of-door diversion and the protection of wildlife. ( Lundqvist, pg. 95 ) The tendency now is toward the establishing of an increasing figure of demands that make it necessary for fouling industries to take appropriate steps for the protection of the environment. The bureaucratism and the deficiency of communicat ing between bureaus has been cut to a bare minimal ensuing in more immediate action towards environmental concerns. The displacement of focal point demands to be less on packaging and more on policy. Policy is what will do alterations in packaging waste. Presently, political urgency of environmental reform may be weakening. Public support for environmental ordinance remains high, but environmental policy suffers from the ups and downs of the issue attending rhythm. This may merely be a job in a media-controlled society like the United States. But, at least at that place, it undermines the demand for consistent and uninterrupted attending to public policy issues that is indispensable for serious determination devising. ( Mandelker, pg. 108 ) Mandelker continues, the general populace supports environmental reform because it believes it will get away the load of conformity but participate in the distribution of benefits. In short, the public expects a free drive. This does non ever go on, and public support for environmental steps disappears when the true allotment of benefits and loads becomes evide nt. For illustration, in 1970 public resistance Clean Air Act arose when other costs which the Act imposed became evident. Congress was cognizant that effectual control of car pollution would necessitate alterations in transit wonts every bit good as bounds on car pollution. The public doesn’t want to be inconvenienced. They are excessively disconnected from the environment. We all want a clean environment because that is the right thing to make. When it comes down to taking an easy life style, or a clean environment, the populace will take the easy path. One ground is that they have non been educated about the environment and another, the reverberations from mismanaged resources have non affected their day-to-day lives. Any alteration must be extremist. Intervening at the borders is non plenty. What is needed most is to set an terminal to the destructive utilizations of symbolism in environmental political relations. This will non be easy. Political symbols provide a cutoff for mobilising support in a complex society where issue argument is hard, and public attending in the issue attending rhythm is brief. ( pg. 116 ) Public environmental instruction must get down in the schools. It should ramify to every country of life. Movies, media, and the amusement industry, must force environmental consciousness. It is non a short program, nevertheless in one coevals, it could alter the United States if non the universe. A coevals could be formed for zero acceptance of politicians that make determinations based on money alternatively of the good of the common people. There are excessively many illustrations of the calamity of the parks that have been the consequence of the corrupt or greedy few. John Ehrenfeld captures the current sentiment ; losing about wholly from the problem-oriented activities of today is a vision of a universe that is sustainable, even a definition of sustainability is losing. No admiration that we move frontward merely on occasion, alternatively floating largely sideways or backward. ( pg. 48 ) In our coevals, we exhibit a religion in instruction which is firm. In malice of grounds to the contrary, we believe that cognition leads to virtue and that truth will so bring forth goodness. ( Hurst, pg. 35 ) It is with this cognition that we can alter the destructive class we are heading. Get downing with kids, instruction of the environment and linking each one of them to it on a personal degree will guarantee regard for the environment subsequently. Ehrenfeld closes with a statement that wraps everything up ; as this happens, encoded elements of a sustainability paradigm will get down to replace the old cultural pillars. And as the structuration procedure works its evolutionary manner, the whole system should go more and more unfastened to sustainability, supplying fertile dirt for the visions of the interior decorators to take root. ( pg. 196 ) Plants Cited Scott, Gerald. â€Å"PACKAGING AND THE ‘THROW-AWAY ‘ SOCIETY† . Journal of the Royal Society of ArtsVol. 122, No. 5212 ( MARCH 1974 ) ( pp. 188-202 ) Stana, Edward J. Packaging and the Environment. Natural Resources & A ; Environment, Vol. 9, No. 2 ( Fall 1994 ) , pp. 16-19. Published by American Bar Association Luz Claudio. OUR Food: Packaging & A ; PUBLIC HEALTH. Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 120, No. 6 ( JUNE 2012 ) , pp. A232-A237. Published by: Brogan & A ; Spouses Donald N. Dewees and Michael J. Hare. Economic Analysis of Packaging Waste Reduction. Canadian Public Policy / Analyse de Politiques, Vol. 24, No. 4 ( Dec. , 1998 ) , pp. 453-470. Published by: University of Toronto Press Clemens Weidemann. GERMANY: Regulation ON THE AVOIDANCE OF PACKAGING WASTE. International Legal Materials, Vol. 31, No. 5 ( SEPTEMBER 1992 ) , pp. 1135-1144. Published by: American Society of International Law J. H. Song, R. J. Murphy, R. Narayan and G. B. H. Davies. Biodegradable and Compostable Alternatives to Conventional Plastics. Philosophic Minutess: Biological Sciences, Vol. 364, No. 1526, Plastics, the Environment and Human Health ( Jul. 27, 2009 ) , pp. 2127-2139Published by: The Royal Society R. Aspinwall and J. Cain. The Changing Mindset in the Management of Waste. Philosophic Minutess: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 355, No. 1728, Clean Technology: The Idea and the Practice ( Jul. 15, 1997 ) , pp. 1425-1437 Published by: The Royal Society Jefferson Hopewell, Robert Dvorak and Edward Kosior. Plastics Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities. Philosophic Minutess: Biological Sciences, Vol. 364, No. 1526, Plastics, the Environment and Human Health ( Jul. 27, 2009 ) , pp. 2115-2126. Published by: The Royal Society Stephen M. Meyer and David M. Konisky. Adopting Local Environmental Institutions: Environmental Need and Economic Constraints. Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 60, No. 1 ( Mar. , 2007 ) , pp. 3-16. Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Lennart Lundqvist. Sweden ‘s Environmental Policy. Ambio, Vol. 1, No. 3 ( Jun. , 1972 ) , pp. 90-101. Published by: Springer Daniel R. Mandelker. Environmental Policy: The Following Generation. The Town Planning Review, Vol. 64, No. 2 ( Apr. , 1993 ) , pp. 107-117. Published by: Liverpool University Press Sam T. Hurst. Environment and Education: Past, Present, Future. Journal of Architectural Education ( 1947-1974 ) , Vol. 19, No. 3 ( Dec. , 1964 ) , pp. 35-37. Published by: Taylor & A ; Francis, Ltd. John R. Ehrenfeld. Sustainability by Design. A Insurgent Strategy for Transforming Our Consumer Culture. September 2008 Published by: Yale University Press

Hunting life Essay

Throughout the pastoral poem, there are several different symbols. The symbols I used were deer, dreams and fear. The deer symbolizes a trophy. I used it as a trophy because if you get your winning deer then that means you have gotten out of this small town and moved onto bigger and better things. Another symbol was dreams because the only way to be able to follow your dreams is to actually be successful and get away from the town/area that is holding you back. Last, I used fear because you get scared to actually take control of your future and to take control  of your dreams to get away and be successful in life without being judged or held back. These symbols were used throughout the entire pastoral poem and relate to real life. Death and Mourning The theme that was used in my pastoral poem was death and mourning. Death is used by the symbolization of the deer. Even though the deer did not physically die, it shows the death of getting out of town. Being in this small town shows that you cannot go out and see what you want to see or pursue your dreams because you are stuck. This is causing you to die on the inside. Mourning is incorporated into this pastoral poem by dreading not â€Å"killing† the deer. This is because if you would have just killed it you would be out of this town but now you really are stuck until you â€Å"kill† it. Death and mourning is shown throughout this pastoral poem as the theme. Grove 2 Hunting Life Silence all around deep in the woods. Isolated for the good sitting in my tree stand, Up in the tree stand waiting for my deer,But after several days I am beginning to fear. Aside from the fear, the fear of not getting my deer, I think about life and embrace silence, While dreaming about succeeding as I breathe in the cool air. As I sit in my tree stand I finally think I hear a deer. Slowly I raise the gun to my chin, getting him centered in my sight. That kill shot is right there. I cannot help but to grin because I have been waiting so long. Waiting so long in my tree stand for my deer. So I take a deep breath, let it out and squeeze. Adrenaline has now gotten the best of me. Shaking, thinking and hoping to please, And then I see the monster is instantly down. I fly down my stand, run to his side and kneel in the blood, He is my 10 point prize. But then I realize this is just a dream, The dream of actually getting anywhere. Grove 3 In this town you can only dream, Dream of succeeding and getting away from this life. Silence is always the key, Keep quiet, breathe in the cool air and maybe you will get your prized deer.

Database: Entity-relationship Model

Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Il-Yeol Song and Kristin Froehlich College of Information Science and Technology Drexel University Philadelphia, PA 19104 Abstract The Entity-Relationship (ER) model and its accompanying ER diagrams are widely used for database design and Systems Analysis. Many books and articles just provide a definition of each modeling component and give examples of pre-built ER diagrams.Beginners in data modeling have a great deal of difficulty learning how to approach a given problem, what questions to ask in order to build a model, what rules to use while constructing an ER diagram, and why one diagram is better than another. In this paper, therefore, we present step-by-step guidelines, a set of decision rules proven to be useful in building ER diagrams, and a case study problem with a preferred answer as well as a set of incorrect diagrams for the problem.Database Management System a nd DataThe guidelines and decision rules have been successfully used in our beginning Database Management Systems course for the last eight years. The case study will provide readers with a detailed approach to the modeling process and a deeper understanding of data modeling. Introduction Entity relationship diagrams (ERD) are widely used in database design and systems analysis to represent systems or problem domains. The ERD was introduced by Chen (1976) in early 1976. Teorey, Yang, and Fry (1986) present an extended ER model for relational database design.The ERD models a given problem in terms of its essential elements and the interactions between those elements in a problem domain. The ERD can serve as the basis for databases, which store data about the problem domain, and which use, manipulate, and constrain that data. Experts in systems analysis and database design are adept at identifying user requirements and then translating them into corresponding components of the model. Many books and articles just provide a definition of each modeling component and give examples of pre-built ER diagrams. Beginners in data modeling have a great eal of difficulty learning how to approach a given problem, what questions to ask in order to build a model, what rules to use while constructing an ER diagram, and why one diagram is better than another. 213 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Ahrens and Song (1991) present a set of requirements elicitation template sentences, structured English template sentences, and some decision rules for database modeling. This paper presents a set of heuristic rules which improve upon those presented by Ahrens and Song (1991), together with a detailed case study analysis.We include step-by-step guidelines, a set of decision rules proven to be useful in building ER diagrams, and a case study problem with a preferred answer as well as a set of incorrect diagrams for the problem. These guidelines and decision ru les have been successfully used in our beginning Database Management Systems course for the last eight years. The case study will provide readers with a detailed approach to the modeling process and a deeper understanding of data modeling. The Entity-Relationship Diagram The entity relationship diagram is a graphical representation of a conceptual structure of a problem domain being modeled.The ERD assists the database designer in identifying the data and the rules that will be represented and used in a database. The ERD is an implementation-independent representation of a problem domain and it facilitates communication between the end-user and the analyst. ERDs can be easily converted into a logical database structure that can be readily implemented in a particular commercial database management system. The basic components of the ERD are entities, properties of entities called attributes, and relationships between entities. Entities Entities are PRIMARY THINGS of a problem domain about which users need to record data.Ross (1988) provides a list of candidate entity types which could be included in the model. (1) People: humans who carry out some function Employees, Students, Customers (2) Places: sites or locations Cities, Offices, Routes (3) Things: tangible physical objects Equipment, Products, Buildings (4) Organizations Teams, Suppliers, Departments (5) Events: things that happen to some other entity at a given date and time or as in an ordered sequence Employee promotions, Project phases, Account payments (6) Concepts: intangible ideas used to keep track of business or other activities Projects, Accounts, Complaints 214 stepsAppendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling These candidate entity types need to be evaluated against a particular domain being modeled. Some decision rules are discussed in a later section of this paper. Attributes Attributes are properties of entities or relationships. Entities have two types of properties: identi fying attributes and descriptive attributes. Identifying attributes uniquely determine each instance of an entity type. They are called entity identifiers or keys. For example, the attribute social security number would uniquely identify each member or instance of the entity type student.Descriptive attributes of student might include year, advisor, and grade point average. Each instance of an entity has a value for each attribute. Values for grade point average might include 2. 5, 3. 45, and 4. 0. Values for year might include 1991, 1992, 1993, and 1994. Only attributes that are meaningful in terms of modeling the problem under consideration are included in the ERD. For example, we would not include eye color in a student database. Relationships Relationships are another basic component of the ERD. A relationship is an association between or among things or entities.A relationship describes a meaningful interaction that needs to be remembered by the system. The degree of a relation ship indicates how many entities are participating in the relationship. A unary relationship describes an association of an entity with itself. A binary relationship, the most common instance, describes an association between two entities. A ternary (or n-ary ) relationship is an association between three or more entities. The ER methods that allow only unary and binary relationships are called binary models, while ER methods that allow any type of relationship are called n-ary models.For more thorough treatment of ternary relationships, see Jones and Song (1995, 1996) and Song and Jones (1995). Cardinality and Participation Constraints Cardinality is a constraint on the relationship between two entities. Specifically, the cardinality constraint expresses the maximum number of entities that can be associated with another entity via a relationship. For example, in a binary relationship (a relationship with two participating entities), we can have three possible cardinalities: oneto-o ne (1:1), one-to-many (1:N), or many-to-many (M:N).One-to-one cardinality says that, for entities customer and account, one customer can have at most one account and one account cannot be owned by more than one customer. One-to-many cardinality says that one customer can have many accounts, but one account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Many-to-many cardinality says that one customer can have many accounts and one account may be owned by many customers. 215 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Participation is also a relationship constraint.Participation expresses the minimum number of entities that can be associated with another entity via a relationship. There are two values for participation: total or mandatory participation and partial or optional participation. If every instance of an entity must participate in a given relationship then that entity has total participation in the relationship. But if every instance need not participate in a g iven relationship then the participation of that entity in the relationship is partial. Given the relationship employee works for epartment, an employee has partial participation in that relationship if he or she need not work for a department. An employee has total participation in the relationship if he or she must work for at least one department. Similarly, a department has partial participation in the relationship if it can exist without having any employees. A department has total participation in the relationship if it must have at least one employee. Cardinality and participation constraints are business rules in the problem domain being modeled. These constraints represent the way one entity type is associated with another entity type.These constraints are also integrity constraints because they help to ensure the accuracy of the database. These constraints limit the ways in which data from different parts of the database can be associated. For example, let's say the cardin ality of the relationship between Customer and Account is one-to-one, as in Figure 1(a) below. If customer C1 is associated with account A3, then C1 cannot be associated with any other accounts and A3 cannot be associated with any other customers. 216 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling (a) One – to – One (1:1):One customer can have at most one account. One account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Customer 1 CA 1 Account ER Diagram C1 C2 C3 A1 A2 A3 Occurrence Diagram (b) One – to – Many (1:n): One customer can have many accounts. One account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Customer 1 C1 C2 C3 CA n A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Account ER Diagram Occurrence Diagram (c) Many – to – Many (n:m): One customer can have many accounts. One account may be owned by many customers. Customer n C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 CA m A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Account ER Diagram Occurrence Diagram Figure 1.CARDINALITY: The expression of the maximum numb er of entities that can be associated to another entity via a relationship. Occurrence Diagrams show the relationships between occurrences or instances of each entity. 217 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Taxonomy in ER Modeling In an ER model, an entity is represented as a rectangle containing the name of the entity. The names of attributes are enclosed in an oval connected to the rectangle of the entity they describe. Attributes may be omitted from the diagram to avoid cluttering it and also in the early stages of development.Relationships are represented by diamonds between entities. The notation of the ERD, however, varies according to the modeling approach used. Binary models do not use the diamond to indicate a relationship, do not represent attributes of relationships, and do not allow ternary relationships, that is, relationships between three or more entities. Martin (1989), Bachman (1992), ERWin and IDEF1X (Bruce, 1992) use the binary modeling approach. Most text books use n-ary modeling, including Elmasri and Navathe (1994), Hawryszkiewycz (1991), Teorey (1994), Batini, Ceri and Navathe (1992), and McFadden and Hoffa (1994).A few notations are illustrated below. n Employee 1 Department a) Chen Employee Department b) Teorey n Employee 1 Department c) Elmasri ; Navathe Employee (0,1) works_for is_worked_for Employee works_for Employee p ——————–works_for Employee c has (1,n) Department d) MERISE Employee Department e) IE Department f) Bachman Department g) IDEF1X Department h) Shlaer & Mellor Figure 2. Various notations for ER Diagram representing â€Å"one employee works for zero or one department and one department has one or more employees†. 218 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship ModelingEach diagram in Figure 2 contains two entities: employee and department. In diagrams a, b, c, and d, the diamond indicates the relationship between the entities. T hese diagrams use n-ary modeling. Diagrams e through h are examples of binary modeling. They do not represent the relationship with the diamond shape. Instead, diagrams e, f, and h label the line between the entities with the relationship name. Attributes were not represented in the diagrams for simplicity. The various circles, lines, arrows, and letters on the diagram indicate cardinality and participation constraints.For a more complete treatment of various ER modeling methods, see Song, Evans, and Park (1995). ER Modeling How does one begin creating an entity relationship diagram? In this paper, we present step-by-step guidelines to build an ERD using n-ary modeling using Elmasri and Navathe's notation (see 2. c). In Table 1, we summarize a sequence of steps of database design using an ER model. Note that these steps are iterative. 1. Understand the problem domain. Analyze database requirements. †¢Write a summary specification in English, if not created yet. †¢What do w e need to store into the database? What queries and reports do we need to generate? †¢ What are important people, places, physical things, organizations, events and abstract concepts in the organization? 2. Design a conceptual schema by creating an ER diagram. (a) Identify entity types. Assign a singular noun to each entity type. (b) Identify relationships between (among) entities. Use a meaningful verb for a relationship name. (c) Draw an ERD without attributes. (d) Identify relationship cardinalities. †¢Mapping constraint (1:1, 1:N, N:M) †¢Participation constraint (Total, Partial) (e) Assign attributes to entity types and relationship types.Usually attributes come from nouns, adjectives or adverbs. (f) Select identifiers (primary keys) for entity types. †¢Weak entity: composite primary key. †¢Regular entity: choose/create a single attribute primary key. (g) Select the PKs of relationships. †¢If 1:1, then the PK of either side entity type may be select ed. †¢If 1:N, then the PK of N-side entity type must be selected. †¢ If M:N, then a composite PK consisting of PKs of two entity types must be used. †¢ If ternary, then a composite PK consisting of the PKs of at least two entity types.The actual PKs selected will vary depending on the cardinality. 3. Design a logical schema. (a) Translate the ERD into a relational schema 219 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling †¢If a relationship cardinality is likely to be changed; use stable method. †¢If a relationship cardinality is not likely to be changed; use mapped method. †¢ If a relationship cardinality is not likely to be changed and null values of foreign keys are significant; use mapped with total/partial method. (b) Check normalization (at least 3NF). (c) Create data dictionaries. A schema table †¢One table for each relation created in step (a) – Assign a domain type for each attribute. – Explain the meaning of a ttributes, if not intuitive. – Note other values such as range, null, PK, FK, indexed, source, owner (d) Do database prototyping & modify the design if necessary. (e) Summarize the design assertion (integrity, security). 4. Verify the design with users. Iterate the steps, if necessary. Table 1. Steps to DB Design Using ER Modeling First, it is important to study the problem domain at hand. Analyze database requirements.Write a summary paragraph for the problem domain, considering what data need to be stored and what queries and reports need to be processed. All the information necessary for the identified queries and reports must be included in the summary paragraph. Revise the summary paragraph considering database requirements. Second, from the summary paragraph, find nouns. They are candidates for entity types. To determine whether a noun should be designated as an entity, the following decision rules may be applied. Rule 1 Every entity type should be important in its own right within the problem domain.Rule 2 IF an object type (noun) has only one property to store THEN it is an attribute of another entity type ELSE it is an entity type. Rule 3 IF an object type has only one data instance THEN do not model as an entity type. Rule 4 IF a relationship needs to have a unique identifier 220 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling THEN model it as an entity type. The first three rules are used to evaluate object types or nouns, and the fourth rule is used to evaluate relationships or verbs. Example 1 Address is usually a property of another object type, like customer, vendor, or company.Its existence is less important and not meaningful in its own right within the problem domain. Address should be modeled as an attribute. Example 2 Suppose we are modeling the customers of a company and we want to include the city where each customer resides. If the name of the city is its only attribute, then, following Rule 2, model city as an attri bute not an entity. Similarly, consider the case of modeling employees and their departments. If the only important property of the department is its name, then Rule 2 tells us to model it as an attribute.However, if we need to store additional properties of each department such as projects or total sales, then we should consider modeling it as an entity. Example 3 Consider modeling the activities of a trucking company. Since there is only one instance of the trucking company, then, according to Rule 3, it is not necessary to represent it in our model as an entity. We note that it is not wrong to model this single instance noun as an entity type. We simply do not model it as an entity type at the conceptual level because it does not add any modeling power.We need the fourth rule because one fact can be stated in many different ways in English. In the fourth rule, distinguishing between entities and relationships depends on the function the component plays in the problem domain and h ow data will be stored about it. Example 4 Consider the three statements customer orders products, customer pays bills, and reviewer reviews papers. Even though orders and pays appear to represent relationships, we model them as entities since each instance would need a unique number for identification in real-world situations.Information would be stored in the database for each order and payment. Each review is not likely to need a unique identification number. Instead, we identify each review activity by a combination of Paper# and Reviewer#. Thus, by Rule 4, we model reviews as a relationship type. Once entities have been assigned, we proceed to identify relationship types between those entities. Verbs are useful candidates for relationships. The following question is useful for identifying relationships: â€Å"What sentences can be constructed of the form Entity Verb Entity? † For example, 221Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling †¢Employee ha s children (Existence relationship) †¢Professor teaches students (Functional relationship) †¢Customer places order (Event relationship) Note that a relationship is not an action of a flow of data as in data flow diagrams. They are important interactions, between two or more entities, that need to be remembered by the system. In the above examples, we want to remember the facts that who is a child of which employee, which professor teaches which students, and which customer places which order. Also keep in mind that all relationships are bi-directional.We should be able to state the relationship in both directions. Expressing the relationships above in the opposite direction yields the following statements: †¢ Children belong to employee †¢ Students are taught by professor †¢ Order is placed by customer After an ERD has been built, the following rule can aid in validating the diagram. Rule 5 IF any verb refers to nouns which are not selected as entity types T HEN do not model it as a relationship type. If any verb in the ERD fails to follow Rule 5, then consider it again carefully before including it in the diagram.When entities and relationships have been identified, then the cardinality and participation constraints of the relationships can be analyzed. The following rules can help determine the cardinality and participation constraints for a given binary relationship. A B Rule 6 For each A, what is the maximum number of Bs that may be related to it? Rule 7 IF A can exist without being associated with a B THEN A has partial (optional) participation ELSE A has total (mandatory) participation. 222 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Example 5 Consider the relationship Supplier Supplies Account.For each Supplier, what is the maximum number of Accounts that may be related to it? Let's say that in our problem domain, each Supplier may have many Accounts but each Account may have only one Supplier. By Rule 6, the ca rdinality constraint for Supplier:Account is 1:N or one to many. Figure 1 illustrates the cardinality constraints. Example 6 In determining the participation constraint of Supplier Supplies Account, we follow Rule 7: If Supplier can exist without being associated with Account, THEN Supplier has partial participation, ELSE Supplier has total participation.In our problem domain, Supplier may exist without being associated with Account. Therefore, Supplier has partial participation in the Supply relationship. However, since Account cannot exist without a Supplier; Account has total participation in the Supply relationship. Some basic naming conventions have been established to maintain accuracy and consistency in the database and to avoid redundancy. All entity names should be unique. Use singular nouns in the diagram for both entity and attribute names. Use verbs in the present tense for relationship names. Verbs should be meaningful.For example, avoid verbs like is, has, and do whene ver possible. Additionally, well-defined ERDs should satisfy the following basic rules: †¢ All entities and relationships should be connected. †¢ All entity names should be unique. †¢ Each entity must have at least one relationship. †¢ A relationship cannot be directly connected to another relationship. †¢ Every entity must have at least one unique attribute, which serves to identify each instance of that entity. Case Study The following example will illustrate our guidelines for modeling requirements of the problem domain with entity-relationship diagrams.Using the summary paragraph of the problem description below, we will progress through the steps described above. The nouns in the problem description appear in boldface and the verbs are italicized to aid in the following analysis. Summary Paragraph of Problem Description A database specialist wants to design a part of the database for a small drug store owner as follows: The owner wants to keep track of all the suppliers who supply anything to the store. For each supplier, the owner assigns a unique supplier number, and wants to keep the 223Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling company name, address (number, street, city, state, zip), contact person's name, phone number, fax number, and a comment for each supplier. For each supply activity, an account is established to keep track of the date incurred, the total cost of the activity, due date for payment, outstanding balance after some payments, and any special comments related to the account. For each account, the owner may pay at several different times and in different ways (e. g. , cash, check, credit card).For each payment activity, the owner wants to keep the date of payment, amount of payment, method of payment (check: check number; credit card: credit card name, type, and number). Note that one supplier can supply many times and one payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. Entity Ana lysis After reading and understanding the problem statement, our first step is to identify entities for the ERD. To do that we examine the nouns in the problem statement. Nouns appear in boldface. We test each noun against our four criteria to determine whether or not it should be included as an entity type.Our first noun is owner. Recall that an entity type has more than one instance and more than one property. Since there is only one instance of owner, we do not model it as an entity type. Similarly, there is only one store, so we need not represent store as an entity type. The next noun, supplier, can be classified as an entity type. Several properties of supplier are listed in the problem statement. The statement also refers to more than one supplier. Therefore, according to Rules 1, 2, and 3, we model supplier as an entity.For each supplier, the owner wants to store the following properties in the database: supplier number, company name, contact person, address, phone number, f ax number, and comment. Each of these attributes except address has only one property to store so we model them as attributes. Address has its component properties number, city, state, and zip so one might be tempted to model it as an entity type. However, the role of address as a property of supplier supersedes the fact that address has properties of its own. In other words, address itself without supplier is not important in its own right.Therefore, by Rule 1, we model address as an attribute. Account is the next noun. Account has several properties to be stored in the database: date incurred, total cost, due date, account balance, and comments; and we will store information about numerous accounts. Therefore, we designate account as an entity. Its properties are modeled as attributes of account. Payment is clearly an entity, with multiple instances and various properties. The properties of payment: date of payment, amount of payment, and method of payment, are modeled as its attr ibutes.Cash, check, and credit card appear to be attributes of payment, but actually, they are not attributes themselves, but simply different values for the attribute method of payment. This distinction becomes clearer if we think about 224 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling storing data in the database. For each payment, one of the values cash, check, or credit card will be stored in the location containing data about the method of payment. Check number and credit card name, type and number may be modeled as attributes of Payment. Supplier Account Payment Figure 3. Entities to be included in the ERD.Relationship Analysis Our analysis of nouns in the problem statement has produced three entities: Supplier, Account, and Payment (Figure 3). Keep these entities in mind as we identify relationships between them. Let's examine the verbs in the problem statement as candidates for relationships in the diagram. Verbs appear in italics. Of the verbs in the problem statement: keep track, assigns, supply, established, and pay, only supply and pay are possible candidates for relationships between the entities account, supplier, and payment. Keep track and keep appear several times in the problem statement.These terms refer, not to a relationship between entities, but generally to storing data in the database. In other words, they are used to describe the problem domain, not an interaction that needs to be remembered by the system. Therefore, we do not model them as relationships. Established, in the statement an account is established, is an activity performed by the owner or the system itself. Similarly, owner assigns a unique supplier number reflects an activity by the owner. These two verbs do not represent relationships between any of our three entities. Thus, we are left with the verbs supply and pay.A supplier performs a supply activity. The result of a supply activity is an account. Therefore, a good candidate for the relationship betwee n supplier and account is supply. Stated in both directions, the relationship is Supplier supplies account and account is supplied by supplier. Rule 4 states that if a relationship needs to have a unique identifier, then model it as an entity. Each supply activity is unique, so we may be tempted to model supply as an entity. However, the data for each activity is stored using the entity account, so it is not necessary to create another entity which stores the same information.Each payment credits an account so pay is the relationship between payment and account. Expressing the relationship pay in both directions, we can say account is paid by payment and payment pays account. 225 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Now we can draw the basic ERD (Figure 4). We include the entities Supplier, Account, and Payment, and the relationships Supply and Pay. Attributes may be added to the diagram at this point or omitted to avoid clutter. Supplier Supply Account Pay Payment Figure 4. ERD without attributes and constraintsAnalysis of Cardinality and Participation Constraints In order to identify the cardinality and participation constraints of each relationship in the ERD, we follow Rules 6 and 7 looking at the relationship first from the point of view of one entity and then from the other entity. In our ERD above, to determine the cardinality constraint of the relationship Supply, we begin by asking, â€Å"For each Supplier, what is the maximum number of Accounts that may be created? † From the problem statement, we know that one supplier can supply many times and an account is established for each supply activity.Viewing the relationship in the other direction, we ask, â€Å"What is the maximum number of Suppliers for which each Account may contain information? † From the problem statement we can assume that each account carries information for a single supplier, since accounts are established for individual supply activities. Th us, for each supplier, there may be many accounts and each account may have only one supplier. The relationship Supplier Supplies Account is a one-to-many relationship. The diagram is marked with a 1 on the side of the relationship Supply nearer to Supplier, and an N (for many) on the side nearer to Account (see Figure 5).To identify the cardinality of the relationship Payment Pays Account, we look at the relationship from both directions. We ask, â€Å"What is the maximum number of Payments we can accept for each Account? † The answer is clearly stated in the problem statement: For each account, the owner may pay at several different times and in different ways. From the opposite direction, â€Å"For each Payment, what is the maximum number of Accounts for which it may pay? † Again, we find the answer in the problem statement: One payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. In sum, each account 226Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Mod eling may receive many payments and each payment may pay for many accounts. Therefore, the relationship Payment Pays Account is many-to-many. This time, we mark our diagram with an M on one side of the relationship Pay and an N on the other side. (Note that the use of M or N is completely arbitrary. ) We go through a similar process to determine the participation constraint of each relationship, looking at the relationship from each direction. For the Supply relationship we ask, â€Å"Can a Supplier exist without generating Accounts? In the other direction, â€Å"Can an Account exist without having Suppliers supply merchandise? † The answers to these questions are not explicit in the problem statement. In a real world situation, the database designers would clarify questions like these with the owner. In this case, we will make assumptions from what we understand about the problem domain. Suppliers are generally fairly stable entities. A company maintains relationships with several regular suppliers regardless of whether they have outstanding accounts. On the other hand, an account is only created when a supplier supplies merchandise.Since suppliers can exist without having current accounts, Supplier has partial participation in the Supply relationship. Accounts, however, depend on suppliers for their existence. Thus, Account has total participation in the Supply relationship. To determine the participation of the entities Payment and Account in the Pay relationship, we ask, â€Å"Can a Payment exist without paying for an Account ? † and â€Å"Can an Account exist without receiving Payments against it? † A payment which pays for nothing is absurd. It cannot exist without an account. An account, however, may exist without receiving payments against it.Therefore, Payment has total participation and Account has partial participation in the relationship Pay. In representing the cardinality and participation constraints described above in our ERD, we will employ Elmasri and Navathe's (1994) notation. If an entity has partial participation in the relationship, then a single line is drawn on the line between that entity and the relationship. A double line indicates total participation. The cardinality constraint is represented by Look Across convention, while participation constraint is represented by Look Here convention.Figure 5 illustrates the final ERD with cardinality and participation constraints. 227 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling 1 Supplier Supply N Account M Pay N Payment Figure 5. ERD with cardinality and participation constraints. Errors in Modeling A common error that novice designers make is failing to recognize the boundaries of a problem domain. They fail to make a distinction between elements that comprise the content of the database and elements that are outside the scope of the database. For example, in the problem statement bove, a novice might want to model the verbs keep track or assigns or established as relationships (see Figure 6(a)). These verbs refer to implementing the database and not to its content. Keep track refers to storing data in the database, established refers to adding an instance of an entity to the database, and assigns refers to giving a value to an attribute of an entity. In deciding which elements to model, it is valuable to keep in mind the real world situation. Novice designers also frequently confuse entities with their attributes or properties, as in Figure 6(b).Occasionally, if properties are complex and play a significant role in the problem domain, then they may be modeled as entities. More often, however, properties of an entity should be modeled as attributes. In our problem statement, a novice user may decide to model address, a property of the entity supplier, as an entity. Modeling Address follows Rules 2 and 3 about identifying entities: it has more than one property and it has more than one occurrence. However, ad dress does not follow Rule1 in that it is not important in its own right.The role of address in the database is more accurate as an attribute of supplier, than as an entity with its own relationships. Other errors are modeling indirect or redundant relationships and inappropriately modeling object types as relationships rather than as entities. Given our problem statement, one may be tempted to model the relationship Payment Pays Supplier as in Figure 6(c) or Supplier Pays Account as in Figure 6(d) rather than Payment Pays Account. Figure 6(c) represents the association between payment and account indirectly. This indirect relationship can only exist after we have all the direct 228Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling relationships as in Figure 5. In this case, the indirect relationship simply becomes redundant. Without the direct relationships, the indirect relationship cannot be added, because it cannot explain how a particular payment is distributed to mu ltiple accounts. Figure 6(d) represents the relationship Pay rather than the entity Payment. In either of these two cases, it is difficult to explicitly represent the fact that one payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. We can only tell implicitly by reading the check number for the various payments.If the payment is made in cash, there is no way to identify that it paid for more than one account. If the representation used in Figure 6(d) is used, then the attributes related to payments: date of payment, amount of payment, and method of payment, are now attributes of the relationship Pay. This representation can add unnecessary complexity to the model. Ordinarily, a relationship is uniquely represented by the identifiers of one or more of the entities which participate in it. If the relationship includes a time-dependent attribute like date of payment, then that attribute must also be included in the primary key for that relationship.Additionally, instances of da te of payment and amount of payment will require redundant representation because they will have to be included for each account covered by a payment. Finally, in business practice, each payment activity usually requires a unique identifier. Therefore, following Rule 4, it is more appropriate to model payment as an entity than as a relationship. As an entity, the representation is more straightforward and less likely to include redundant or inaccurate information. 229 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling a) Selection of wrong verb as relationship Owner (b) Attribute as entity Supplier Located_at Address Keeps_track Payment (c) Indirect relationship Payment Pays Supplier Establishes Account (d) Payment as relationship instead of entity Establishes Supplier Pays Account Figure 6. Errors in ERD Modeling. Limitations of Guidelines and Rules Two limitations of our guidelines are that they don't account for incomplete requirements analysis or for ambiguity in the problem description. If the problem description is incomplete, then the resulting analysis based on this approach will also be incomplete.We assume that the analysis is complete. If the problem specification is modified, the analysis and resulting ERD should be modified as well. In English, one concept can be represented in many different ways. For example, we can say that customer orders products or customer places an order to buy products. Order is used 230 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling as a verb in the first sentence and as a noun in the second. We minimize this problem by adopting Rule 4, which states that if a verb needs to have a unique identifier, we model it as an entity type rather than a relationship type.Conclusion We have discussed a set of decision rules which are useful in building ERDs and have illustrated the application of these rules using a single example. ERD constructs discussed here include Entities, Relationships, Attributes, Ca rdinality constraints and Participation constraints. To simplify our discussion, we didn't include other constructs such as Weak Entity, Ternary Relationship, and Generalization/ Specialization. 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